Self-control (resistance to temptation)
o accomplish the higher priority goals, individuals need to resist the momentarily salient yet lower priority temptations with which the more important goals are in conflict. Our analysis, then, assumes that temptations are defined within a given situation and with respect to the longer term goals at hand. For instance, a desire to go on a relaxing vacation is legitimate on some occasions but should be withheld on other times, when important deadlines at work are approaching. The relativity of goals within goal systems has some important implications for the nature of self-control, which, to be effective, should facilitate the pursuit of dynamic motivational states.”
There is, as the saying goes, often a price for success: In striving to attain our long-term dreams and ambitions, we often must forgo momentary pleasures and amusements. Psychologists have long recognized that these little sacrifices typically are not easy, as the lure of momentary temptations can be pervasive. How do we stay the course and finish a long paper when we could be watching must-see TV? How do we forgo a dinner with friends to stick with our workout schedule? As these examples demonstrate, everyday choice and behavior often involve a struggle between opposite behavioral tendencies. Whereas all goals represent desirable end states that individuals would ordinarily wish to approach, many important, long-term goals require that individuals give up other, relatively lower priority pursuits that might otherwise hinder the attainment of these enduring goals. We label such obstacles temptations, and, in line with previous conceptualizations, in the present analysis we assume that people come to avoid temptations and approach overarching goals through the processes of self-control Fishbach, Ayelet, Shah, James Y(2010 ). Self-Control in Action. Journal of personality and social psychology, 90, 820-832. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Distributive Justice (Vacanation distribution aka healthcare)
For instance, a desire to go on a relaxing vacation is legitimate on some occasions but should be withheld on other times, when important deadlines at work are approaching. The relativity of goals within goal systems has some important implications for the nature of self-control, which, to be effective, should facilitate the pursuit of dynamic motivational states. Stein, Mark S. (1958). Distributive Justice & disability utilitarianism against egalitarianism. New Haven: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
A simple stylized example illustrates both points
and serves to fix ideas for purposes of the argument to come. Imagine that a population of ten million persons faces a one in five chance of an epidemic outbreak of an infectious disease. If an epidemic occurs and nothing is done to combat the disease, two-anda- half million persons will eventually become infected. Suppose further that the disease may be contained in two ways. First, quarantining the first one million persons who are exposed will protect the remaining nine million from exposure, although at a cost: 650 thousand of the quarantined persons will contract the disease;'^ and all one million will bear the urdens of confinement, which are l/lO the burden of suffering the disease. Second, vaccinating the entire population in advance of any outbreak can prevent infections entirely, although the vaccinations are themselves burdensome. They are expensive and painful and, more importantly, involve significant medical side effects. The per-person burden of vaccination is 1/40 as bad as suffering the actual disease. Markovits, Daniel (2005). Quarantines and distributive Justice. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 33, 323-344. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Honesty (not cheating on a test)
Unfortunately, academic dishonesty in college is widespread. Though the percentage of undergraduate students reporting that they have cheated at least once during their college careers has remained consistent at about 80% over 30 years, the severity of cheating (e.g., percentages of students engaging in more "serious" cheating such as exam cheating) has increased substantially (Bowers, 1964; Brown & Emmett, 2001; McCabe & Klebe-Trevino, 1997; Spiller & Crown, 1995). In a recent study, Carpenter, Harding, Finelli, Montgomery, and Passow (2006) found that more than 96% of the engineering students reported engaging in at least one behavior they defined as either cheating or unethical while in college. It is not that these students did not understand what cheating was or even had difficulty establishing what behaviors were ethical; rather, the vast majority of students participating in the study were willing to engage in a behavior they recognized and defined as ethically wrong. Mayhew, Matthew J., Hubbard, Steven M., Finelli, Cynthia J., Harding, Trevor S ., Carpenter, Donald D. (2009). Using Structural Equation Modeling to Validate the Theory of Planned Behavior as a Model for Predicting Student Cheating. The Review of Higher Education, 32 (4), 441-468. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
violations of good conduct result from a progressive moral failure that
causes them to become insensitive to or tolerant of low-level ethical violations. They
begin to feel they are doing what everyone else is doing, blaming others for their own
transgressions and fearing retaliation for confronting moral failure. Rogers, Laura (2010). Ethical dilemmas in education: standing up for honesty and integrity. Journal of moral education, 39 (2), 243 -248. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Ability to develop intimate friendships (hope of having a lasting marriage)
In the “State of Our Unions” project report (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2006), teens were
asked about their beliefs concerning marriage, family, and monogamy. The results suggested
that the great majority of them do want to get married some day and feel that marriage and
family life is “extremely important” (82% for females, and 70% for males). However, only 63%
8 of adolescent females and 57% of adolescent males think it is very likely that they will stay
married to the same person for their whole lives. Even more disturbing is the fact that only 32%
of high school senior females and 38% of high school senior males stated that they “agreed or
mostly agreed that most people will have fuller and happier lives is they choose legal marriage
rather than staying single or just living with someone” (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2006). Gutierrez, Lorinda A. (2007). The development of READY-A (Ready Inventory for Adolescents) : an assessment of adolescent relationship competence. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Friendship will motivate one to cross the room one day and say, "I'm sorry; I didn't mean that." It will not pretend perfection nor demand it. It will not insist that both respond exactly the same in every thought and feeling, but it will bring to the union honesty, integrity.
Hanks, Marion D. (1984). Marriage> Latter Day Saints General Conference. October. 47. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Turn About
Students of ‘interview’ behavior, and such two-arty conversation as approximates it in form, have concerned theselves with the distribution of talk among the parties, the distribution of silences, the sequences in which the talk shifted from one to another or was rtained by a single party, and the way such transfer or retention was coordinated. Sacks, Harvey, Schegoloff, Emanuel A., Jefferson, Gail (1974). Language: A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn Taking for Conversation. Linguistic Society of America, 50 (4), 696-735. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org
This is an organization of practices designed to allow routine achievement of what appears to be overwhelmingly the most common default “numerical” value of speakership in talk-in-interaction: one party talking at a time. This is a matter not so much of politeness as of the constitutive features of commonplace talk-in-interaction, as an enabling institution for orderly commerce between people. Schegloff, Emanuel A. (2000) Overlapping talk and the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language in Society, 29, 1-63. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org
Sharing/Giving
Sharing behavior demands the sacrifice
of material possessions by the sharer for
the benefit of others. In situations in which
limited resources are to be shared, interests
of the self and others are placed in direct
confiict. Birch (1986). Preschool Children's Food Sharing with Friends and Acquaintances. Child development, 57 (2), 387-395. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
explained that she would show slides of pairs of pictures, and that the subject was to indicate with a pointer which of the two forms on each slide was the larger. She further explained that each correct answer would be rewarded with a token, that the tokens would be exchanged later for a prize, and that the more tokens one had, the better the prize would be. Thus, choosing the correct form was presented as the primary task at hand. Every child viewed eight slides, earned eight tokens, was directed to sign her name on a sheet of paper (this operation serving only to allow the experimenter time to depart from the trailer in the no surveillance condition), and to share or not share, as she chose. The child was also instructed to go into the back room when she finished, where the assistant would exchange her tokens and escort her back to the classroom. The sharing opportunity was always presented by the experimenter giving the following permissive instruction: But before you trade your tokens, you might want to put some of them into this can for
children at another school who won't have the chance to earn tokens. If the children are given enough tokens, we'll give them some prizes, too, but you don't have to give any if you don't want to. Poulos (2010). Influence of modeling, exhortative verbalization, and surveillance on children's sharing. Developmental psychology, 6 (3), 402-408
Handle conflict with others (art of compromising in situations)
Compromising (assertiveness and cooperativeness).
A compromising person finds a mutually acceptable solution that is agreeable to both parties. Compromising contains the same dimensions as collaborating but the dimensions are considered intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness Morrison (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence competencies and preferred conflict-handling styles. Journal of nursing management, 16 (8), 974 -83. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
We defined conflict ending as the point at which the parents stopped interacting at the current time, and so parents' reports reflected discrete episodes rather than a general atmosphere in the home. Both fathers and mothers completed the home reports, but for ease of presentation, and because responses and the pattern of results were generally quite consistent across reporters (see Cummings et al., 2003), mothers' records are used exclusively in the current report.
Using a checklist format, mothers indicated (i.e., endorsed or did not endorse) what they and their spouses did to end each conflict interaction, including apologize, compromise, give in, agree to disagree, and withdraw. Mothers also rated the degree of their own and their spouses' angry, sad, fearful, and positive emotional expression, on 10-point scales ranging from 0 (none) to 9 (high). Their ratings of their emotions and behaviors during conflicts, which are described elsewhere (Cummings et al., 2003), were also included for selected analyses reported below. Mothers also rated the extent to which the problem was worked out, on a 10-point scale from 0 (none) to 9 (high).
Geoke, Morey (2010). Children and Marital Conflict Resolution. Journal of family psychology, 21(4), 744 -753. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Formation of a reciprocal relationship
Examines the reciprocal relationship between conceptual models of learning and nursing practice. Social mission of nursing; Formulations of conceptual model used in nursing practice; Development of patient classification systems guided by conceptual models. Fawcett (1992). Conceptual models and nursing practice: the reciprocal relationship. Journal of advanced nursing, 17(2), 224-228. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
These point to all manner of connections and contacts between the two parties. Relations developed haphazardly and were unstructured. No set procedures regarding the transmission of information from policemen to journalists, and no routine system of briefing or press
officers existed in the period under review. The evidence shows, however, that these links gradually became more intensive, albeit not always congenial, as will be discussed below.
Required to be in the proximity of law enforcers who would feed them nformation, insights and good stories, journalists gradually developed a wide range of contacts with detectives. Some links were occasional and ad hoc, while others were long-standing. A small number of top journalists enjoyed social connections with leading politicians and senior officials, including those working for the police, whom they met in gentlemen’s clubs and other social venues and could tap for information The article examines the relationship between police detectives and journalists during the Victorian and Edwardian periods in England, particularly London. Topics include how both occupations evolved during the period, their struggle for respectability and recognition, the mutually-dependent relationship between journalists and detectives, negotiations on how police work would be reported in the press, frictions between the two professions, and how journalists assisted police or reacted to their lack of cooperation. Shpayer, Makov (2009). Journalists and Police Detectives in Victorian and Edwardian England: An Uneasy Reciprocal Relationship. Journal of social history, 42(4), 963 -987
Emotional Self-Regulation
Of these, emotional self-regulation is one of the most crucial. It reflects the ability to initiate behavioral and emotional changes during emotionally charged situations in order to meet goals and manage arousal and predicts current and later adjustment Dennis, Tracy (2010). Emotional Self-Regulation in Preschoolers. Developmental, 42 (1), 84 -97. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
We add to existing research by examining emotional performance in job roles that require either the expression of positive emotions (e.g., customer service) or the expression of negative emotions (e.g., bill collection). We also extend existing emotional labor research by including a physiological measure (i.e., heart rate) in our study, allowing us to examine both the effects of emotional performance on individuals' reports of experienced stress and exhaustion and their cardiac responses to emotional performance. Although some existing laboratory research has linked emotional regulation to cardiac arousal, the role of personality in cardiac responses to emotional regulation has not been examined. Indeed, the use of physiological stress measures in organizational research has been criticized for ignoring both stable factors (e.g., personality traits) and transitory influences (e.g., emotional regulation demands; see Fried, Rowland, & Ferris, 1984). Because the link between stress and heart rate reported in the literature is modest (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1996, for a review) and the cardiac system is responsive to both challenges and threats (Blascovich, Mendes, Hunter, & Salomon, 1999), we include heart rate in our study on an exploratory basis. Bono, Joyce E. (Personality and Emotional Performance. Journal of occupational health psychology, 12(2), 177-192. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Saturday, November 6, 2010
SFL 210 outline
Self-control (resistance to temptation)
o accomplish the higher priority goals, individuals need to resist the momentarily salient yet lower priority temptations with which the more important goals are in conflict. Our analysis, then, assumes that temptations are defined within a given situation and with respect to the longer term goals at hand. For instance, a desire to go on a relaxing vacation is legitimate on some occasions but should be withheld on other times, when important deadlines at work are approaching. The relativity of goals within goal systems has some important implications for the nature of self-control, which, to be effective, should facilitate the pursuit of dynamic motivational states.”
There is, as the saying goes, often a price for success: In striving to attain our long-term dreams and ambitions, we often must forgo momentary pleasures and amusements. Psychologists have long recognized that these little sacrifices typically are not easy, as the lure of momentary temptations can be pervasive. How do we stay the course and finish a long paper when we could be watching must-see TV? How do we forgo a dinner with friends to stick with our workout schedule? As these examples demonstrate, everyday choice and behavior often involve a struggle between opposite behavioral tendencies. Whereas all goals represent desirable end states that individuals would ordinarily wish to approach, many important, long-term goals require that individuals give up other, relatively lower priority pursuits that might otherwise hinder the attainment of these enduring goals. We label such obstacles temptations, and, in line with previous conceptualizations, in the present analysis we assume that people come to avoid temptations and approach overarching goals through the processes of self-control Fishbach, Ayelet, Shah, James Y(2010 ). Self-Control in Action. Journal of personality and social psychology, 90, 820-832. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Distributive Justice (Vacanation distribution aka healthcare)
For instance, a desire to go on a relaxing vacation is legitimate on some occasions but should be withheld on other times, when important deadlines at work are approaching. The relativity of goals within goal systems has some important implications for the nature of self-control, which, to be effective, should facilitate the pursuit of dynamic motivational states. Stein, Mark S. (1958). Distributive Justice & disability utilitarianism against egalitarianism. New Haven: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
A simple stylized example illustrates both points
and serves to fix ideas for purposes of the argument to
come. Imagine that a population of ten million persons
faces a one in five chance of an epidemic outbreak
of an infectious disease. If an epidemic occurs
and nothing is done to combat the disease, two-anda-
half million persons will eventually become infected.
Suppose further that the disease may be contained
in two ways. First, quarantining the first one million
persons who are exposed will protect the remaining
nine million from exposure, although at a cost: 650
thousand of the quarantined persons will contract the
disease;'^ and all one million will bear the burdens of
confinement, which are l/lO the burden of suffering
the disease. Second, vaccinating the entire population
in advance of any outbreak can prevent infections
entirely, although the vaccinations are themselves
burdensome. They are expensive and painful and,
more importantly, involve significant medical side
effects. The per-person burden of vaccination is 1/40
as bad as suffering the actual disease. Markovits, Daniel (2005). Quarantines and distributive Justice. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 33, 323-344. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Honesty (not cheating on a test)
Unfortunately, academic dishonesty in college is widespread. Though the percentage of undergraduate students reporting that they have cheated at least once during their college careers has remained consistent at about 80% over 30 years, the severity of cheating (e.g., percentages of students engaging in more "serious" cheating such as exam cheating) has increased substantially (Bowers, 1964; Brown & Emmett, 2001; McCabe & Klebe-Trevino, 1997; Spiller & Crown, 1995). In a recent study, Carpenter, Harding, Finelli, Montgomery, and Passow (2006) found that more than 96% of the engineering students reported engaging in at least one behavior they defined as either cheating or unethical while in college. It is not that these students did not understand what cheating was or even had difficulty establishing what behaviors were ethical; rather, the vast majority of students participating in the study were willing to engage in a behavior they recognized and defined as ethically wrong. Mayhew, Matthew J., Hubbard, Steven M., Finelli, Cynthia J., Harding, Trevor S ., Carpenter, Donald D. (2009). Using Structural Equation Modeling to Validate the Theory of Planned Behavior as a Model for Predicting Student Cheating. The Review of Higher Education, 32 (4), 441-468. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
violations of good conduct result from a progressive moral failure that
causes them to become insensitive to or tolerant of low-level ethical violations. They
begin to feel they are doing what everyone else is doing, blaming others for their own
transgressions and fearing retaliation for confronting moral failure. Rogers, Laura (2010). Ethical dilemmas in education: standing up for honesty and integrity. Journal of moral education, 39 (2), 243 -248. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Ability to develop intimate friendships (hope of having a lasting marriage)
In the “State of Our Unions” project report (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2006), teens were
asked about their beliefs concerning marriage, family, and monogamy. The results suggested
that the great majority of them do want to get married some day and feel that marriage and
family life is “extremely important” (82% for females, and 70% for males). However, only 63%
8 of adolescent females and 57% of adolescent males think it is very likely that they will stay
married to the same person for their whole lives. Even more disturbing is the fact that only 32%
of high school senior females and 38% of high school senior males stated that they “agreed or
mostly agreed that most people will have fuller and happier lives is they choose legal marriage
rather than staying single or just living with someone” (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2006). Gutierrez, Lorinda A. (2007). The development of READY-A (Ready Inventory for Adolescents) : an assessment of adolescent relationship competence. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Friendship will motivate one to cross the room one day and say, "I'm sorry; I didn't mean that." It will not pretend perfection nor demand it. It will not insist that both respond exactly the same in every thought and feeling, but it will bring to the union honesty, integrity.
Hanks, Marion D. (1984). Marriage> Latter Day Saints General Conference. October. 47. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Turn About
Students of ‘interview’ behavior, and such two-arty conversation as approximates it in form, have concerned theselves with the distribution of talk among the parties, the distribution of silences, the sequences in which the talk shifted from one to another or was rtained by a single party, and the way such transfer or retention was coordinated. Sacks, Harvey, Schegoloff, Emanuel A., Jefferson, Gail (1974). Language: A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn Taking for Conversation. Linguistic Society of America, 50 (4), 696-735. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org
This is an organization of practices designed to allow routine achievement of what appears to be overwhelmingly the most common default “numerical” value of speakership in talk-in-interaction: one party talking at a time. This is a matter not so much of politeness as of the constitutive features of commonplace talk-in-interaction, as an enabling institution for orderly commerce between people. Schegloff, Emanuel A. (2000) Overlapping talk and the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language in Society, 29, 1-63. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org
Sharing/Giving
Sharing behavior demands the sacrifice
of material possessions by the sharer for
the benefit of others. In situations in which
limited resources are to be shared, interests
of the self and others are placed in direct
confiict. Birch (1986). Preschool Children's Food Sharing with Friends and Acquaintances. Child development, 57 (2), 387-395. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
The assistant escorted each child individually to the trailer, explaining on the way that the child would view pictures with an adult who had also come to see the pictures. After introducing the child to the experimenter and confererate, the assistant excused herself, ostensibly to work in the back room. The experimenter then explained that she would show slides of pairs of pictures, and that the subject was to indicate with a pointer which of the two forms on each slide was the larger. She further explained that each correct answer would be rewarded with a token, that the tokens would be exchanged later for a prize, and that the more tokens one had, the better the prize would be. Thus, choosing the correct form was presented as the primary task at hand. Every child viewed eight slides, earned eight tokens, was directed to sign her name on a sheet of paper (this operation serving only to allow the experimenter time to depart from the trailer in the no surveillance condition), and to share or not share, as she chose. The child was also instructed to go into the back room when she finished, where the assistant would exchange her tokens and escort her back to the classroom. The sharing opportunity was always presented by the experimenter giving the following permissive instruction: But before you trade your tokens, you might want to put some of them into this can for
children at another school who won't have the chance to earn tokens. If the children are given enough tokens, we'll give them some prizes, too, but you don't have to give any if you don't want to. Modeling versus no modeling. After earning tokens, one-half of the subjects (modeling) observed the confederate act upon the sharing opportunity presented to her, as described above. Depositing four of her ostensibly earned tokens into the container, the confederate glanced at the subject and stated: "I think I'll give four tokens to the children—there, I gave four." She then left the trailer, and the children were immediately given the chance to donate. The remaining one-half of the subjects (no modeling) merely earned tokens and were presented with the opportunity to share. Prior to their potential donation, the confederate excused herself and departed from the trailer. Verbalization versus no verbalization. Half of the children in each modeling condition were exposed to the verbalization: "I think it would be good to give some tokens to the children. The right thing to do is to help others. Four would be a fair number to give; I think it would be ood to give four." In the modeling subgroup, the verbalization was given in conjunction with the confederate's verbal description of her modeled action. In the no modeling subgroup, the verbalization was spoken by the confederate immediately after the subjects had been presented with the sharing opportunity. The confederate then left the trailer before the subject acted. For the remaining one-half of the children, assigned to the no verbalization condition, the confederate departed from the trailer prior to the subjects' potential sharing, erely stating her intention to leave. Surveillance versus no surveillance. Half of the subjects in each of the four subgroups described above, when given the opportunity to donate, were directly but passively observed by the experimenter, who stood nearby (surveillance). For the remaining half, the experimenter presented the sharing opportunity, immediately announced that she had to leave for a while and therefore would not see the child again, and departed from the trailer (no surveillance). Poulos (2010). Influence of modeling, exhortative verbalization, and surveillance on children's sharing. Developmental psychology, 6 (3), 402-408
Handle conflict with others (art of compromising in situations)
Compromising (assertiveness and cooperativeness).
A compromising person finds a mutually acceptable solution that is agreeable to both parties. Compromising contains the same dimensions as collaborating but the dimensions are considered intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness Morrison (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence competencies and preferred conflict-handling styles. Journal of nursing management, 16 (8), 974 -83. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
We defined conflict ending as the point at which the parents stopped interacting at the current time, and so parents' reports reflected discrete episodes rather than a general atmosphere in the home. Both fathers and mothers completed the home reports, but for ease of presentation, and because responses and the pattern of results were generally quite consistent across reporters (see Cummings et al., 2003), mothers' records are used exclusively in the current report.
Using a checklist format, mothers indicated (i.e., endorsed or did not endorse) what they and their spouses did to end each conflict interaction, including apologize, compromise, give in, agree to disagree, and withdraw. Mothers also rated the degree of their own and their spouses' angry, sad, fearful, and positive emotional expression, on 10-point scales ranging from 0 (none) to 9 (high). Their ratings of their emotions and behaviors during conflicts, which are described elsewhere (Cummings et al., 2003), were also included for selected analyses reported below. Mothers also rated the extent to which the problem was worked out, on a 10-point scale from 0 (none) to 9 (high).
Geoke, Morey (2010). Children and Marital Conflict Resolution. Journal of family psychology, 21(4), 744 -753. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Formation of a reciprocal relationship
Examines the reciprocal relationship between conceptual models of learning and nursing practice. Social mission of nursing; Formulations of conceptual model used in nursing practice; Development of patient classification systems guided by conceptual models. Fawcett (1992). Conceptual models and nursing practice: the reciprocal relationship. Journal of advanced nursing, 17(2), 224-228. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
These point to all manner of connections and contacts between the two parties. Relations developed haphazardly and were unstructured. No set procedures regarding the transmission of information from policemen to journalists, and no routine system of briefing or press
officers existed in the period under review. The evidence shows, however, that these links gradually became more intensive, albeit not always congenial, as will be discussed below.
Required to be in the proximity of law enforcers who would feed them nformation, insights and good stories, journalists gradually developed a wide range of contacts with detectives. Some links were occasional and ad hoc, while others were long-standing. A small number of top journalists enjoyed social connections with leading politicians and senior officials, including those working for the police, whom they met in gentlemen’s clubs and other social venues and could tap for information The article examines the relationship between police detectives and journalists during the Victorian and Edwardian periods in England, particularly London. Topics include how both occupations evolved during the period, their struggle for respectability and recognition, the mutually-dependent relationship between journalists and detectives, negotiations on how police work would be reported in the press, frictions between the two professions, and how journalists assisted police or reacted to their lack of cooperation. Shpayer, Makov (2009). Journalists and Police Detectives in Victorian and Edwardian England: An Uneasy Reciprocal Relationship. Journal of social history, 42(4), 963 -987
Emotional Self-Regulation
Of these, emotional self-regulation is one of the most crucial. It reflects the ability to initiate behavioral and emotional changes during emotionally charged situations in order to meet goals and manage arousal and predicts current and later adjustment Dennis, Tracy (2010). Emotional Self-Regulation in Preschoolers. Developmental, 42 (1), 84 -97. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
We add to existing research by examining emotional performance in job roles that require either the expression of positive emotions (e.g., customer service) or the expression of negative emotions (e.g., bill collection). We also extend existing emotional labor research by including a physiological measure (i.e., heart rate) in our study, allowing us to examine both the effects of emotional performance on individuals' reports of experienced stress and exhaustion and their cardiac responses to emotional performance. Although some existing laboratory research has linked emotional regulation to cardiac arousal, the role of personality in cardiac responses to emotional regulation has not been examined. Indeed, the use of physiological stress measures in organizational research has been criticized for ignoring both stable factors (e.g., personality traits) and transitory influences (e.g., emotional regulation demands; see Fried, Rowland, & Ferris, 1984). Because the link between stress and heart rate reported in the literature is modest (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1996, for a review) and the cardiac system is responsive to both challenges and threats (Blascovich, Mendes, Hunter, & Salomon, 1999), we include heart rate in our study on an exploratory basis. Bono, Joyce E. (Personality and Emotional Performance. Journal of occupational health psychology, 12(2), 177-192. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
o accomplish the higher priority goals, individuals need to resist the momentarily salient yet lower priority temptations with which the more important goals are in conflict. Our analysis, then, assumes that temptations are defined within a given situation and with respect to the longer term goals at hand. For instance, a desire to go on a relaxing vacation is legitimate on some occasions but should be withheld on other times, when important deadlines at work are approaching. The relativity of goals within goal systems has some important implications for the nature of self-control, which, to be effective, should facilitate the pursuit of dynamic motivational states.”
There is, as the saying goes, often a price for success: In striving to attain our long-term dreams and ambitions, we often must forgo momentary pleasures and amusements. Psychologists have long recognized that these little sacrifices typically are not easy, as the lure of momentary temptations can be pervasive. How do we stay the course and finish a long paper when we could be watching must-see TV? How do we forgo a dinner with friends to stick with our workout schedule? As these examples demonstrate, everyday choice and behavior often involve a struggle between opposite behavioral tendencies. Whereas all goals represent desirable end states that individuals would ordinarily wish to approach, many important, long-term goals require that individuals give up other, relatively lower priority pursuits that might otherwise hinder the attainment of these enduring goals. We label such obstacles temptations, and, in line with previous conceptualizations, in the present analysis we assume that people come to avoid temptations and approach overarching goals through the processes of self-control Fishbach, Ayelet, Shah, James Y(2010 ). Self-Control in Action. Journal of personality and social psychology, 90, 820-832. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Distributive Justice (Vacanation distribution aka healthcare)
For instance, a desire to go on a relaxing vacation is legitimate on some occasions but should be withheld on other times, when important deadlines at work are approaching. The relativity of goals within goal systems has some important implications for the nature of self-control, which, to be effective, should facilitate the pursuit of dynamic motivational states. Stein, Mark S. (1958). Distributive Justice & disability utilitarianism against egalitarianism. New Haven: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
A simple stylized example illustrates both points
and serves to fix ideas for purposes of the argument to
come. Imagine that a population of ten million persons
faces a one in five chance of an epidemic outbreak
of an infectious disease. If an epidemic occurs
and nothing is done to combat the disease, two-anda-
half million persons will eventually become infected.
Suppose further that the disease may be contained
in two ways. First, quarantining the first one million
persons who are exposed will protect the remaining
nine million from exposure, although at a cost: 650
thousand of the quarantined persons will contract the
disease;'^ and all one million will bear the burdens of
confinement, which are l/lO the burden of suffering
the disease. Second, vaccinating the entire population
in advance of any outbreak can prevent infections
entirely, although the vaccinations are themselves
burdensome. They are expensive and painful and,
more importantly, involve significant medical side
effects. The per-person burden of vaccination is 1/40
as bad as suffering the actual disease. Markovits, Daniel (2005). Quarantines and distributive Justice. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 33, 323-344. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Honesty (not cheating on a test)
Unfortunately, academic dishonesty in college is widespread. Though the percentage of undergraduate students reporting that they have cheated at least once during their college careers has remained consistent at about 80% over 30 years, the severity of cheating (e.g., percentages of students engaging in more "serious" cheating such as exam cheating) has increased substantially (Bowers, 1964; Brown & Emmett, 2001; McCabe & Klebe-Trevino, 1997; Spiller & Crown, 1995). In a recent study, Carpenter, Harding, Finelli, Montgomery, and Passow (2006) found that more than 96% of the engineering students reported engaging in at least one behavior they defined as either cheating or unethical while in college. It is not that these students did not understand what cheating was or even had difficulty establishing what behaviors were ethical; rather, the vast majority of students participating in the study were willing to engage in a behavior they recognized and defined as ethically wrong. Mayhew, Matthew J., Hubbard, Steven M., Finelli, Cynthia J., Harding, Trevor S ., Carpenter, Donald D. (2009). Using Structural Equation Modeling to Validate the Theory of Planned Behavior as a Model for Predicting Student Cheating. The Review of Higher Education, 32 (4), 441-468. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
violations of good conduct result from a progressive moral failure that
causes them to become insensitive to or tolerant of low-level ethical violations. They
begin to feel they are doing what everyone else is doing, blaming others for their own
transgressions and fearing retaliation for confronting moral failure. Rogers, Laura (2010). Ethical dilemmas in education: standing up for honesty and integrity. Journal of moral education, 39 (2), 243 -248. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Ability to develop intimate friendships (hope of having a lasting marriage)
In the “State of Our Unions” project report (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2006), teens were
asked about their beliefs concerning marriage, family, and monogamy. The results suggested
that the great majority of them do want to get married some day and feel that marriage and
family life is “extremely important” (82% for females, and 70% for males). However, only 63%
8 of adolescent females and 57% of adolescent males think it is very likely that they will stay
married to the same person for their whole lives. Even more disturbing is the fact that only 32%
of high school senior females and 38% of high school senior males stated that they “agreed or
mostly agreed that most people will have fuller and happier lives is they choose legal marriage
rather than staying single or just living with someone” (Whitehead & Popenoe, 2006). Gutierrez, Lorinda A. (2007). The development of READY-A (Ready Inventory for Adolescents) : an assessment of adolescent relationship competence. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Friendship will motivate one to cross the room one day and say, "I'm sorry; I didn't mean that." It will not pretend perfection nor demand it. It will not insist that both respond exactly the same in every thought and feeling, but it will bring to the union honesty, integrity.
Hanks, Marion D. (1984). Marriage> Latter Day Saints General Conference. October. 47. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Turn About
Students of ‘interview’ behavior, and such two-arty conversation as approximates it in form, have concerned theselves with the distribution of talk among the parties, the distribution of silences, the sequences in which the talk shifted from one to another or was rtained by a single party, and the way such transfer or retention was coordinated. Sacks, Harvey, Schegoloff, Emanuel A., Jefferson, Gail (1974). Language: A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn Taking for Conversation. Linguistic Society of America, 50 (4), 696-735. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org
This is an organization of practices designed to allow routine achievement of what appears to be overwhelmingly the most common default “numerical” value of speakership in talk-in-interaction: one party talking at a time. This is a matter not so much of politeness as of the constitutive features of commonplace talk-in-interaction, as an enabling institution for orderly commerce between people. Schegloff, Emanuel A. (2000) Overlapping talk and the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language in Society, 29, 1-63. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org
Sharing/Giving
Sharing behavior demands the sacrifice
of material possessions by the sharer for
the benefit of others. In situations in which
limited resources are to be shared, interests
of the self and others are placed in direct
confiict. Birch (1986). Preschool Children's Food Sharing with Friends and Acquaintances. Child development, 57 (2), 387-395. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
The assistant escorted each child individually to the trailer, explaining on the way that the child would view pictures with an adult who had also come to see the pictures. After introducing the child to the experimenter and confererate, the assistant excused herself, ostensibly to work in the back room. The experimenter then explained that she would show slides of pairs of pictures, and that the subject was to indicate with a pointer which of the two forms on each slide was the larger. She further explained that each correct answer would be rewarded with a token, that the tokens would be exchanged later for a prize, and that the more tokens one had, the better the prize would be. Thus, choosing the correct form was presented as the primary task at hand. Every child viewed eight slides, earned eight tokens, was directed to sign her name on a sheet of paper (this operation serving only to allow the experimenter time to depart from the trailer in the no surveillance condition), and to share or not share, as she chose. The child was also instructed to go into the back room when she finished, where the assistant would exchange her tokens and escort her back to the classroom. The sharing opportunity was always presented by the experimenter giving the following permissive instruction: But before you trade your tokens, you might want to put some of them into this can for
children at another school who won't have the chance to earn tokens. If the children are given enough tokens, we'll give them some prizes, too, but you don't have to give any if you don't want to. Modeling versus no modeling. After earning tokens, one-half of the subjects (modeling) observed the confederate act upon the sharing opportunity presented to her, as described above. Depositing four of her ostensibly earned tokens into the container, the confederate glanced at the subject and stated: "I think I'll give four tokens to the children—there, I gave four." She then left the trailer, and the children were immediately given the chance to donate. The remaining one-half of the subjects (no modeling) merely earned tokens and were presented with the opportunity to share. Prior to their potential donation, the confederate excused herself and departed from the trailer. Verbalization versus no verbalization. Half of the children in each modeling condition were exposed to the verbalization: "I think it would be good to give some tokens to the children. The right thing to do is to help others. Four would be a fair number to give; I think it would be ood to give four." In the modeling subgroup, the verbalization was given in conjunction with the confederate's verbal description of her modeled action. In the no modeling subgroup, the verbalization was spoken by the confederate immediately after the subjects had been presented with the sharing opportunity. The confederate then left the trailer before the subject acted. For the remaining one-half of the children, assigned to the no verbalization condition, the confederate departed from the trailer prior to the subjects' potential sharing, erely stating her intention to leave. Surveillance versus no surveillance. Half of the subjects in each of the four subgroups described above, when given the opportunity to donate, were directly but passively observed by the experimenter, who stood nearby (surveillance). For the remaining half, the experimenter presented the sharing opportunity, immediately announced that she had to leave for a while and therefore would not see the child again, and departed from the trailer (no surveillance). Poulos (2010). Influence of modeling, exhortative verbalization, and surveillance on children's sharing. Developmental psychology, 6 (3), 402-408
Handle conflict with others (art of compromising in situations)
Compromising (assertiveness and cooperativeness).
A compromising person finds a mutually acceptable solution that is agreeable to both parties. Compromising contains the same dimensions as collaborating but the dimensions are considered intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness Morrison (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence competencies and preferred conflict-handling styles. Journal of nursing management, 16 (8), 974 -83. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
We defined conflict ending as the point at which the parents stopped interacting at the current time, and so parents' reports reflected discrete episodes rather than a general atmosphere in the home. Both fathers and mothers completed the home reports, but for ease of presentation, and because responses and the pattern of results were generally quite consistent across reporters (see Cummings et al., 2003), mothers' records are used exclusively in the current report.
Using a checklist format, mothers indicated (i.e., endorsed or did not endorse) what they and their spouses did to end each conflict interaction, including apologize, compromise, give in, agree to disagree, and withdraw. Mothers also rated the degree of their own and their spouses' angry, sad, fearful, and positive emotional expression, on 10-point scales ranging from 0 (none) to 9 (high). Their ratings of their emotions and behaviors during conflicts, which are described elsewhere (Cummings et al., 2003), were also included for selected analyses reported below. Mothers also rated the extent to which the problem was worked out, on a 10-point scale from 0 (none) to 9 (high).
Geoke, Morey (2010). Children and Marital Conflict Resolution. Journal of family psychology, 21(4), 744 -753. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
Formation of a reciprocal relationship
Examines the reciprocal relationship between conceptual models of learning and nursing practice. Social mission of nursing; Formulations of conceptual model used in nursing practice; Development of patient classification systems guided by conceptual models. Fawcett (1992). Conceptual models and nursing practice: the reciprocal relationship. Journal of advanced nursing, 17(2), 224-228. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
These point to all manner of connections and contacts between the two parties. Relations developed haphazardly and were unstructured. No set procedures regarding the transmission of information from policemen to journalists, and no routine system of briefing or press
officers existed in the period under review. The evidence shows, however, that these links gradually became more intensive, albeit not always congenial, as will be discussed below.
Required to be in the proximity of law enforcers who would feed them nformation, insights and good stories, journalists gradually developed a wide range of contacts with detectives. Some links were occasional and ad hoc, while others were long-standing. A small number of top journalists enjoyed social connections with leading politicians and senior officials, including those working for the police, whom they met in gentlemen’s clubs and other social venues and could tap for information The article examines the relationship between police detectives and journalists during the Victorian and Edwardian periods in England, particularly London. Topics include how both occupations evolved during the period, their struggle for respectability and recognition, the mutually-dependent relationship between journalists and detectives, negotiations on how police work would be reported in the press, frictions between the two professions, and how journalists assisted police or reacted to their lack of cooperation. Shpayer, Makov (2009). Journalists and Police Detectives in Victorian and Edwardian England: An Uneasy Reciprocal Relationship. Journal of social history, 42(4), 963 -987
Emotional Self-Regulation
Of these, emotional self-regulation is one of the most crucial. It reflects the ability to initiate behavioral and emotional changes during emotionally charged situations in order to meet goals and manage arousal and predicts current and later adjustment Dennis, Tracy (2010). Emotional Self-Regulation in Preschoolers. Developmental, 42 (1), 84 -97. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
We add to existing research by examining emotional performance in job roles that require either the expression of positive emotions (e.g., customer service) or the expression of negative emotions (e.g., bill collection). We also extend existing emotional labor research by including a physiological measure (i.e., heart rate) in our study, allowing us to examine both the effects of emotional performance on individuals' reports of experienced stress and exhaustion and their cardiac responses to emotional performance. Although some existing laboratory research has linked emotional regulation to cardiac arousal, the role of personality in cardiac responses to emotional regulation has not been examined. Indeed, the use of physiological stress measures in organizational research has been criticized for ignoring both stable factors (e.g., personality traits) and transitory influences (e.g., emotional regulation demands; see Fried, Rowland, & Ferris, 1984). Because the link between stress and heart rate reported in the literature is modest (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1996, for a review) and the cardiac system is responsive to both challenges and threats (Blascovich, Mendes, Hunter, & Salomon, 1999), we include heart rate in our study on an exploratory basis. Bono, Joyce E. (Personality and Emotional Performance. Journal of occupational health psychology, 12(2), 177-192. Retrieved from http://sfx.lib.byu.edu/index.php
notes for SFL 210 paper
Moral Development
Self-control (resistance to temptation) – Inhibiting an impulse to engage in behavior that violates a moral standard (p. 510).
Compliance – Voluntary obedience to requests and commands (p. 511).
Delay of gratification – Waiting for a more appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act or obtain a desired object (p. 511)
Moral Self-Regulation – The ability to monitor one’s own conduct, constantly adjusting it as circumstances present opportunities to violate inner standards (p. 512)
Distributive Justice – Beliefs about how to divide material goods fairly. (p. 508)
Postconventional level – Kohlberg’s highest level of moral development, in which morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. (p. 497)
Conventional level –Kohlberg’s second level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on conforming to social rules to ensure positive human relationships and societal order. (p. 496)
Preconventional level –Kohlberg’s first level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on rewards, punishment, and the power of authority figures. (p. 496)
Autonomous Morality – Piaget’s second stage of moral development, in which children view rules as flexible, socially agreed-on principles that can be revised to suit the will of the majority.
Ideal Reciprocity – A standard of fairness based on mutuality of expectations, in which individuals express the same concern for the welfare of others as they would have others grant to them. Captured by the Golden Rule (p. 492).
Heteronomous Morality – Piaget’s first stage of moral development, in which children view rules as handed down by authorities, as having a permanent existence, as unchangeable, and as requiring strict obedience.
Realism - A view of rules as external features of reality rather than as cooperative principles that can be modified at will. Characterizes Piaget’s heteronomous stage (p. 492)
Social Competence - The ability to achieve personal goals in social interaction while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others over time and across situations (Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992).
Ability to develop Intimate Friendships: The braiding of the behaviors of two individuals into a social exchange of some
Level 1: Friendship as a handy playmate
– About 4 to 7 years
Level 2: Friendship as mutual trust and assistance
– About 8 to 10 years
Level 3: Friendship as intimacy and loyalty
– 11 to 15 years+
Broad tendencies studied at this level:
1. Moving toward others (sociability, helpfulness)
2. Moving away from others (withdrawal)
3. Moving against others (aggression)
Functional Play – Simple, repetitive motor movements with or without object. (p. 606)
Constructional Play – Creating or constructing something.
Make-believe (Pretend) Play – Acting out everyday and imaginary roles.
Games with rules – Understanding and following rules in play activities
Nonsocial Activity – Unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play. (p. 605)
Parallel play – A form of limited social participation in which the child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior. (p. 605)
Associative play – A form of true social participation in which children engage in separate activities, but they interact by exchanging toys and commenting on one another’s behavior. (p. 605)
Cooperative play – A form of true social participation in which children’s actions are directed toward a common goal. (p. 605)
Solitary-active – Behavior is characterized by solitary-functional play (repeated sensorimotor actions with or without objects) and/or by solitary dramatic/pretend play.
Reticence – Consists of on looking (prolonged looking at peer(s) without accompanying play) and/or being unoccupied (doing nothing).
Solitary-passive – Behavior comprises the quiescent exploration of objects and/or constructive activity while playing alone.
Sharing/giving:
Proactive/Instrumental Aggression – Aggression aimed at obtaining an object, privilege, or space with no deliberate intent to harm another person. (p. 514)
Handle conflict with others:
Dominance Hierarchy - A stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises. (p. 607)
Clique – A small group of about five to seven members who are good friends. (p. 620)
Reactive/Hostile Aggression – Aggression intended to harm another person (p. 514)
Physical/Overt Aggression – A form of hostile aggression that harms others through physical injury or the threat of such injury (e.g., hitting, kicking, or threatening to beat up a peer). (p. 514)
Relational Aggression – A form of hostile aggression that damages another’s peer relationships, as in social exclusion or rumor spreading. (p. 514)
Rough-and-Tumble Play – A form of peer interaction involving friendly chasing and play-fighting. (p. 607)
Phonological Development
Pragmatics: The component of language concerned with the rules for engaging in effective and appropriate communication with others. (p. 358)
Phonology: The component of language concerned with the rules governing the structure and sequence of speech sounds. (p. 358) TV is didi, cookie is gege, sea is tea, say is tay, lap is yap, ready is weddy
Semantics: The component of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations. (p. 358) object words: apple, ball; action words: bye-bye, go, hi, look, more, out, up; state words: all gone, big, dirty, hot, mine, pretty, outside, red, uh-oh, wet; personal/social words: no, ouch, please, want, yes, thank you; function words: for, is, to, what, where
Turnabout: A conversational strategy in which the speaker not only comments on what has just been said but also adds a request to get the partner to respond again.
Referential Communication Skills: The ability to produce clear verbal messages and to recognize when the meaning of others’ messages is unclear.
Fast-mapping: Connecting a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter. (p. 372)
Underextension: An early vocabulary error in which a word is applied too narrowly, to a smaller number of objects and events than is appropriate. (p. 378)
Overextension: An early vocabulary error in which a word is applied too broadly, to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate. (p. 378)
Word coinage and metaphors
Telegraphic Speech: Children’s two-word utterances that, like a telegram, leave out smaller and less important words. (p. 383)
Overregularization: Application of regular grammatical rules to words that are exceptions. (p. 385)
Emotion - Expression of readiness to establish, maintain, or change one’s relation to the environment on a matter of personal importance. (p. 400)
Emotional Self-Regulation - The strategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals. (p. 407)
Temperament – Stable individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self-regulation. (p. 417-425)
Inhibited (shy) children – A child whose temperament is such that he reacts negatively to and withdraws from novel stimuli (p. 419).
Uninhibited (sociable) children - A child whose temperament is such that he displays positive emotion to and approaches novel stimuli (p. 419).
Formation of a reciprocal relationship:
Attachment – The strong affectional tie that humans feel toward special people in their lives. (p. 419)
Ethological Theory of Attachment – A theory formulated by Bowlby, which views the infant’s emotional tie to the familiar caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival. (p. 420)
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory (p. 426)
– Preattachment phase
– Attachment-in-the-making phase
– Phase of clear-cut attachment
• Separation Anxiety – An infant’s distressed reaction to the departure of the familiar caregiver.
– Formation of a reciprocal relationship
Internal Working Model – A set of expectations derived from early care giving experiences concerning the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self’s interaction with those figures that affect all future close relationships. (p. 427)
Self-control (resistance to temptation) – Inhibiting an impulse to engage in behavior that violates a moral standard (p. 510).
Compliance – Voluntary obedience to requests and commands (p. 511).
Delay of gratification – Waiting for a more appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act or obtain a desired object (p. 511)
Moral Self-Regulation – The ability to monitor one’s own conduct, constantly adjusting it as circumstances present opportunities to violate inner standards (p. 512)
Distributive Justice – Beliefs about how to divide material goods fairly. (p. 508)
Postconventional level – Kohlberg’s highest level of moral development, in which morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. (p. 497)
Conventional level –Kohlberg’s second level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on conforming to social rules to ensure positive human relationships and societal order. (p. 496)
Preconventional level –Kohlberg’s first level of moral development, in which moral understanding is based on rewards, punishment, and the power of authority figures. (p. 496)
Autonomous Morality – Piaget’s second stage of moral development, in which children view rules as flexible, socially agreed-on principles that can be revised to suit the will of the majority.
Ideal Reciprocity – A standard of fairness based on mutuality of expectations, in which individuals express the same concern for the welfare of others as they would have others grant to them. Captured by the Golden Rule (p. 492).
Heteronomous Morality – Piaget’s first stage of moral development, in which children view rules as handed down by authorities, as having a permanent existence, as unchangeable, and as requiring strict obedience.
Realism - A view of rules as external features of reality rather than as cooperative principles that can be modified at will. Characterizes Piaget’s heteronomous stage (p. 492)
Social Competence - The ability to achieve personal goals in social interaction while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others over time and across situations (Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992).
Ability to develop Intimate Friendships: The braiding of the behaviors of two individuals into a social exchange of some
Level 1: Friendship as a handy playmate
– About 4 to 7 years
Level 2: Friendship as mutual trust and assistance
– About 8 to 10 years
Level 3: Friendship as intimacy and loyalty
– 11 to 15 years+
Broad tendencies studied at this level:
1. Moving toward others (sociability, helpfulness)
2. Moving away from others (withdrawal)
3. Moving against others (aggression)
Functional Play – Simple, repetitive motor movements with or without object. (p. 606)
Constructional Play – Creating or constructing something.
Make-believe (Pretend) Play – Acting out everyday and imaginary roles.
Games with rules – Understanding and following rules in play activities
Nonsocial Activity – Unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play. (p. 605)
Parallel play – A form of limited social participation in which the child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior. (p. 605)
Associative play – A form of true social participation in which children engage in separate activities, but they interact by exchanging toys and commenting on one another’s behavior. (p. 605)
Cooperative play – A form of true social participation in which children’s actions are directed toward a common goal. (p. 605)
Solitary-active – Behavior is characterized by solitary-functional play (repeated sensorimotor actions with or without objects) and/or by solitary dramatic/pretend play.
Reticence – Consists of on looking (prolonged looking at peer(s) without accompanying play) and/or being unoccupied (doing nothing).
Solitary-passive – Behavior comprises the quiescent exploration of objects and/or constructive activity while playing alone.
Sharing/giving:
Proactive/Instrumental Aggression – Aggression aimed at obtaining an object, privilege, or space with no deliberate intent to harm another person. (p. 514)
Handle conflict with others:
Dominance Hierarchy - A stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises. (p. 607)
Clique – A small group of about five to seven members who are good friends. (p. 620)
Reactive/Hostile Aggression – Aggression intended to harm another person (p. 514)
Physical/Overt Aggression – A form of hostile aggression that harms others through physical injury or the threat of such injury (e.g., hitting, kicking, or threatening to beat up a peer). (p. 514)
Relational Aggression – A form of hostile aggression that damages another’s peer relationships, as in social exclusion or rumor spreading. (p. 514)
Rough-and-Tumble Play – A form of peer interaction involving friendly chasing and play-fighting. (p. 607)
Phonological Development
Pragmatics: The component of language concerned with the rules for engaging in effective and appropriate communication with others. (p. 358)
Phonology: The component of language concerned with the rules governing the structure and sequence of speech sounds. (p. 358) TV is didi, cookie is gege, sea is tea, say is tay, lap is yap, ready is weddy
Semantics: The component of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations. (p. 358) object words: apple, ball; action words: bye-bye, go, hi, look, more, out, up; state words: all gone, big, dirty, hot, mine, pretty, outside, red, uh-oh, wet; personal/social words: no, ouch, please, want, yes, thank you; function words: for, is, to, what, where
Turnabout: A conversational strategy in which the speaker not only comments on what has just been said but also adds a request to get the partner to respond again.
Referential Communication Skills: The ability to produce clear verbal messages and to recognize when the meaning of others’ messages is unclear.
Fast-mapping: Connecting a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter. (p. 372)
Underextension: An early vocabulary error in which a word is applied too narrowly, to a smaller number of objects and events than is appropriate. (p. 378)
Overextension: An early vocabulary error in which a word is applied too broadly, to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate. (p. 378)
Word coinage and metaphors
Telegraphic Speech: Children’s two-word utterances that, like a telegram, leave out smaller and less important words. (p. 383)
Overregularization: Application of regular grammatical rules to words that are exceptions. (p. 385)
Emotion - Expression of readiness to establish, maintain, or change one’s relation to the environment on a matter of personal importance. (p. 400)
Emotional Self-Regulation - The strategies for adjusting our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals. (p. 407)
Temperament – Stable individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self-regulation. (p. 417-425)
Inhibited (shy) children – A child whose temperament is such that he reacts negatively to and withdraws from novel stimuli (p. 419).
Uninhibited (sociable) children - A child whose temperament is such that he displays positive emotion to and approaches novel stimuli (p. 419).
Formation of a reciprocal relationship:
Attachment – The strong affectional tie that humans feel toward special people in their lives. (p. 419)
Ethological Theory of Attachment – A theory formulated by Bowlby, which views the infant’s emotional tie to the familiar caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival. (p. 420)
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory (p. 426)
– Preattachment phase
– Attachment-in-the-making phase
– Phase of clear-cut attachment
• Separation Anxiety – An infant’s distressed reaction to the departure of the familiar caregiver.
– Formation of a reciprocal relationship
Internal Working Model – A set of expectations derived from early care giving experiences concerning the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self’s interaction with those figures that affect all future close relationships. (p. 427)
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